Effect of somatic marker hypothesis on making decisions

Effect of somatic marker hypothesis on making decisions The Somatic-marker hypothesis (SMH) was first proposed by Demasio (1996), to explain the process of decision-making, while incorporating the role of emotion. This hypothesis developed after working with neurological patients who had damage to the prefrontal region, specifically in the ventral and medial regions, and presented severe impairments in decision making abilities (Damasio, 1979, 1994). As patients did not show any other impairment to their mental abilities, other than a compromised ability to express emotion, Damasio was able to investigate a link between emotion and decision-making ability. However, this link has been opposed by the Expected Utility Theory, which considers a rational approach to decision-making, in which emotion does not play a role (Friedman Savage, 1948). Demasio states within the SMH that people are able to make decisions through interaction between emotion and rationality, to produce the most appropriate outcome. These interactions are made by the emotional response and information from environmental input being presented in the form of physiological arousal, allowing an individual to assess their emotional response to a situation (Gazzaniga, Ivry Mangun, 2009). He argued that emotion is most commonly presented through alterations in an individuals physiological state, as these emotions are represented within the brain as temporary changes in the activity pattern of somato-sensory structures. Although human emotion has been primarily linked to the functions of the limbic system, the SMH proposed that despite the involvement of emotion, the neuronal circuit involved in decision making incorporates a variety of brain regions outside of these classic limbic system structures (MacLean, 1949). Damasio argues that in this process the emo tional responses require multiple sources of feedback from the periphery brain in order to assist decision making (Damasio, 2004). There have been found to be two different forms of stimuli which cause an alteration in physiological states of humans allowing decision-making to later occur; primary inducers are innate or learned stimuli which rely on the amygdala to produce a physiological change; secondary inducers are entities which are produced through the recall of a personal experience of a primary inducer and rely on the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) to activate somatic states; these are most common in the face of uncertain outcomes, as they rely on information provided by similar past experiences. These somatic states, which are experienced when a stimuli is presented, are the result of responses aimed at the brain which lead to; the central nervous system (CNS) releasing neurotransmitters, a modification of the state of somatosensory maps, and an alteration in the transmission of signals from the body to somatosensory regions. The body receives information from these changes, and combines them to be interpreted as an emotion (Bechara, 2004). After a somatic state has been produced by a primary inducer, signals are then received by the brain to produce somatic state patterns in the brainstem nuclei and in the somato-sensing cortices. Once this somatic state alteration has occurred due to the initial presentation of a primary inducer, the pattern is stored for later recall. Later presentation of this primary inducer or a related secondary inducer can cause the somatic state pattern to be recalled and produce a similar emotional response. As a result, the brain is able to produce a prediction model of alterations expected to occur in the body, allowing the individual to respond more effectively and rapidly to the stimuli, without having to wait for the changes in physiology to be produced by the periphery (Dunn, Dalgleish, Lawrence, 2006). This reaction is summarised by the SMH, as the process allows an individual to be influenced in decision-making by the basic biasing signals which are produced as a result of the neurotr ansmitters being released in the cerebral cortex and the diencephalon. For every response to a situation that an individual contemplates, a somatic state is created, which serve as an indicator of the expected outcome (Damasio, Tranel Damasio, 1991; Damasio, 1996). This causes the somatic state to apply a biasing effect of an individuals behaviours, feelings, and cognitive patterns in response to a situation. Evidence of the link between emotion and decision-making was provided by Domasio, when he observed a patient who had damage to the orbitofrontal cortex. He found that the patient E.V.R was able to generate reasonable solutions when presented with a social reasoning task, however, was unable to prioritize these solutions, identifying the most effective (Saver Damasio, 1991). Prior to this, the orbitofrontal cortex had primarily been associated with the control of emotion. This suggests that the decision-making process relies on information provided by the emotion region of the brain, in order to provide a reasonable response. Alternatively, some psychologists argue that the orbitofrontal cortex plays a leading role in applying social knowledge to the decision-making process rather than considering an individuals emotional response, due to the recognition of which rules can be applied to a particular social situation, rather than assessing somatic markers (Gazziniga et al., 2009). More evidence was provided by the neuropsychologist Le Doux (1996) who found that humans and animals responded to stimuli which could potentially harm them so quickly it was unlikely they could have considered the risks posed to them being in that situation. He argued that this quick emotional evaluation of stimuli is an innate response which has developed with evolution to preserve our species in the face of danger, rather than cognitively processing the unfolding events. Considering his evidence, LaDoux explains that our emotional circuitry is designed to have a greater influence on our rational approaches to decisions, rather than our rational thoughts over-riding our emotions. Despite the SMH satisfactorily explaining how our emotions have an unconscious effect on our decision making process, we must also consider the fact that emotions are also known to act consciously on our rational judgement. Some psychologists have suggested that this allows us to employ our emotions as another form of information which we integrate into our logical decision-making process (Schwarz, 2000). When presented with a range of alternatives, it is suggested that we consider the emotions relating to the options before us, which we are often very aware of. Strong empirical evidence has been provided from data on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), a decision-making task which is believed to rely on emotional-related feedback from the body to enable an appropriate response (Bechara, Tranel, Damasio Damasio, 1996). The data indicated the lesions in the VMPFC cause impairments in decision-making, particularly the ability to select the most appropriate and advantageous option. This behavioural impairment has therefore been associated with the absence of predictor signals which allow an individual to differentiate between good and bad decisions. IGT has been praised as a sensitive, ecological measure of decision-making impairment, however, assumptions required for it to support the SMH have been criticised as unsound. The first assumption was that this learning is possible due to predictor marker signals produced by the body. Evidence from psychophysiological profiles compiled during the IGT did not support this suggestion (Tomb, Hauser, Deldin Caramazza, 2002), resulting in the lack of a causal relationship being established between disrupted feedback from the periphery and impaired decision-making. This suggests that the predictor changes may actually represent the expectancy anticipation towards the outcome, once the decision has already been made (Amiez, Procyk, Honore, Sequeira Joseph, 2003). It is also suggested that the tasks which aimed to measure implicit learning as the reward/punishment schedule as being cognitively inexplicable, in fact demonstrated accurate knowledge of the tasks possible outcomes (Maia McClelland, 2004). It was found that cognitive mechanisms, including working-memory exert a strong influence on task performance. Further support was given for the SMH in the business environment, as it is able to explain why we often rely on gut feelings when making a decision, and find them to be better predictors for a decision outcome than market data and past research. Physiological evidence from these studies identifies the involvement of the striatum and anterior cingulated in recognizing patterns and calculating the probabilities of outcomes. It was found that these areas respond immediately when presented with repeated or alternative somatic state patterns (Huettel et al. 2002). Alternatively, Rolls (1999) provides criticism, as he argues that the SMH proposes a very inefficient view that peripheral responses are located in the execution route, and for interpretation and measurement of this peripheral response to occur simultaneously. Rather, he suggests that reinforcement association, located in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala, is more than efficient enough to allow emotion-based learning to occ ur. This learning would consequently alter behaviours via the orbitofrontal-striatal pathways, through implicit or explicit processes. An alternative theory to decision-making is the Expected Utility Theory (EUT) (Bernoulli, 1738 cited 1997) which states that an individual is able to select an appropriate resolution in risky circumstances by comparing their expected utility values. These are calculated by adding the utility value of the outcomes multiplied by their respective probabilities, for each option available (Mongin, 1997). The expected utilities are determined by considering the probability of each possible outcome (gain or loss) for a particular option (Hoogendoorn, Merk Treur, 2006). This theory of decision-making considers a rational approach, in which emotion does not cause a bias towards the decisions made. However, much criticism has been provided by Kahneman and Tversky (1974, 1979) when considering this theory as a practical model for human decision-making. They found in numerous studies that humans are particularly bad at estimating probabilities objectively, and so their emotions may cause a bias in the final decision-making process. This has been reinforced by many others (Ellsberg, 1961; Fellner, 1961) who highlight the difficulty in determining the level of uncertainty in a given situation. They also suggest that people are not often aware of the exact probabilities associated with the possible outcomes, and so this problem, combined with the issue of ambiguity has been the focus for much further research Kahnenman Tversky, 2000). To conclude, the Somatic Marker Hypothesis proposed by Damasio (1994) suggests that when an individual experiences a situation, alterations in their physiological state are represented within their body as changes in their somato-sensory state. These changes are represented as an emotion towards that particular situation and act as an indicator of the expected outcome. When faced with a similar situation in the future, which requires a decision, Damasio suggested that an individual extracts emotional information supplied by somatic marker to facilitate them in the decision-making process. Evidence for this theory has been provided by numerous studies of neurological patients who had damage to the prefrontal region, and presented severe impairments in decision making abilities (Damasio, 1979, 1994). However, psychologists Gazziniga et, al. (2009) suggest that although emotion does play a role in decision-making, it is involved in the recognition of socially acceptable activities, rath er than assessing somatic markers. In contrast, the Expected Utility Theory approaches decision-making in a much more rational way. It states that an individual assesses the probability of loss or gain for each available outcome in order to select the most advantageous choice of action. Bachara Demasio (2005) has since suggested further research to fully explore some unanswered questions posed by the SMH. Little research has previously been conducted into the different kinds of decision-making and the relationship it may have with recruiting different neural networks for different tasks. Secondly, he proposed investigating if we are able to successfully identify when emotions are helpful or a hindrance in decision-making and if there are any individual differences.

Importance of Bridging the Digital Divide Essay -- Technology Society

Children today are not born with an umbilical cord, but a computer cord. Kids aren’t the way they use to be. How many times have you caught yourself thinking or saying this? Theories today believe that children form these generations are actually different, meaning their brains are different from when we were children. What can we do about it, or should we do anything at all? This paper will examine children today and the difference between the generations. Secondly, due to the difference in generations, the importance of maintaining social interaction, critical thinking and problem solving skills, which, are just as important as technical fluencies for the 21st century. In order to maintain the â€Å"humanity† skills, I will discuss the importance of Daily Physical Activity (DPA). Furthermore, the paper will also examine the importance of building a bridge between the digital divide. It is necessary to examine the educational system and the digital divide. Chi ldren are engulfed in a digital world and have different experiences and environment. How do we build a bridge between the technical fluencies and the humanity skills necessary to be successful in the 21st century? Digital Residents are they really different? Mark Prensky (2001) has coined the phrase Digital Natives versus Digital Immigrants. To put it simply, Digital Natives (DN) have always had the new technology (cell phones, video games, digital music, computers) while Digital Immigrants (DI) have come into these things later on in life and have had to learn â€Å"it† above and beyond the old ways they had of doing things. Is there a difference? Children today are born into a digital world and use technology from a young age. The Digital Natives/Learner finds technol... ...talKids.pdf Ministry of Education, Education. (2005). Daily physical activity (ISBN: 0-7794-8884-9). Ontario: Queen's Printer of Ontario. Pink, D. (2010). Drive: the surprising truth about what motivates us. Proceedings of the RSA animation, www.youtube.com Prensky, M. (2008). The role of technology. Educational Technology, Nov-Dec. Prensky, M. (2008). Turing on the lights. Educational Leadership, 65(6) Prensky, Marc. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants, part ii. On the Horizon, 9(6), Prensky, Marc. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), Robinson, K.(2010). Changing education paradigm, [Web]. Retrieved from http://sirkenrobinson.com/skr/watch Small, G, & Vorgan, g. (2008). ibrain: surviving the technological alteration of the modern mind. New York: Collins Living.

Gene Therapy: Lab Report

The LIEU gene Is a linear fragment that does not notation an Autonomous Replication Sequence, so it could not replicate on its own and needed to be integrated by homologous recombination. The TRIP gene was a circular plasmid that contained an EARS, which allowed for it to act as an extra chromosome In the gene. The objective was to insert a â€Å"wild gene† and replace the defective genes and then grow them on a medium that does not contain TRIP or LIEU to prove that the genes had been cured.To help determine if recombination took place in the LIEU gene, and to compliment negative data from the 431 LIEU drop out medium, the â€Å"cured† LIEU gene was compared to the â€Å"diseased† ELISE gene. The expectation was that the â€Å"cured† LIEU gene would be a different size from that of the â€Å"diseased,† which would be proven through a PC run of the two DNA strands after they were replicated under the same in vitro conditions. The purpose of the PC w as to show what kind of mutation occurred in the mutant to cause It to lose Its LIEU function.Methods Yeast Transformation Procedure Both hands and bench tops were sterilized by 10% ethyl alcohol and were continually wiped down at various times throughout the lab. Gloves were also worn for the duration of the lab to help prevent contamination. The first step was to obtain doth strains of yeast, AY 235 and AY 431, with the fat end of a sterile tooth pick from an augur plate and place them into two separate Offender tubes.The Offender tubes were filled with poll of solution 1 (50 ml sterile water) before the yeast was added to them. The tubes were then spun in a centrifuge for four seconds to separate the excess water from the pellet that formed from the yeast. The supernatant were discarded and the pellets were suspended in poll of solution 2 (0. MM Lilac; 0. 01 M Tries, 8. 0; 0. MOM DEED). The solution was once again spun for four seconds in the centrifuge and the supernatant were d iscarded. The pellets were re- suspended in 1 Pool of solution 2.

Zeffirelli film Essay Example

Zeffirelli film Essay Example Zeffirelli film Essay Zeffirelli film Essay Essay Topic: To Build a Fire In the Luhrman film, the Montague Boys are seen as loud and bold. The clothes that they wear are brightly coloured Hawaiian shirts, which make them stand out. The Capulet Boys are seen as the Bad Boys looking like gangsters because they wear black suits, have goatees and arrive in a blacked out car. The camera mainly focuses on Tybalt; he wore metal-heeled boots, which he put a match out with. This could represent the stamping out of a life. The camera zoomed in and did a close up of this.In the Zeffirelli film the Capulets wore bright yellow and red doublets, hoes and hats. The Montague boys wore blue liverys. The characters seemed a lot calmer and peaceful, even though there is tension between the two families. This could represent the period in which it was filmed. The Zeffirelli film was a lot more faithful to Shakespeare play but it was more exaggerated by repeating sentences, Do you bite your thumb at me? The clothing that was warned made it more true to Shakespeares play because it was in the style of the period.The cinematography that was used in the Luhrman film started with a camera shot focused on a television screen which was in the distance and fuzzy. The camera moved in on the television screen and a ring appeared it is broken in half and has I love thee engraved on to it. The newspaper headings that appeared created a montage. A couple of the headlines being, Civil blood and Ancient Grudge.This version had quite few close ups, some being when the different families arrived in their cars. The camera did a close up of each familys number plate. The Montagues was MON002 and the Capulets was CAP005. The camera focused on to the guns, which were tucked in to the holsters, they had their own familys name engraved on to their guns. There was also a symbol on them in gold. One of the Montague Boys has a gun with Sword 9mm on. The camera did a close up of Tybalts metal healed boot while he was stamping out a match.The Zeffirelli film begins with a shot of the whole of Verona, which shows you the walled town, narrow streets and tall buildings, which creates mystery. The camera then moves in to the Capulets walking in to the market. There are also low shots looking up at the tall buildings. There is more lower camera shots in the Luhrman film so you can see the tall buildings, and scenery. The camera focuses on the two skyscrapers one with Montague on and the other had Capulet on with a small statue of Jesus Christ between them. This give the impression that the two families think that they are more important than Jesus Christ. There are more close ups used in the Luhrman version.The music and sound effects, which are used in the Luhrman film, were louder and modern. It fits in with the fast lifestyle of the characters. The different families have different types of music associated with them, the Montagues was heavy dance beat music and the Capulets was jagged guitar music. There was a few sound effects used effectively, the explosion of gunshots and car noises.In the Zeffirelli film, the music and sound effects are more contemporary to Shakespeare. Most of the music is classical which creates a softer, calmer and peaceful atmosphere. The pace of the film is a lot slower that the Luhrman film. The music that is used in both films gives the image of the speed of the two films. There were not many sound effects used in the 1968 version, some which were used were the church bell ringing, horse shoes clattering, these are everyday realistic noises.I first noticed that editing has been used in the Luhrman film when the newspaper headlines create a montage at the start. This explains what has been happening with the two families Capulet Vs Montague. The ring, which was also shown at the beginning of the film, could suggest that Romeo and Juliet are in love with each other and their families are keeping them separate. There are also fast shots to create tension between the families, at the beginning of the film, which creates a peaceful and reflective atmosphere.In the Zeffirelli version, Romeo is filmed holding a flower this could indicate that he was in love. There is an outburst of shouting between the two families, Do you bite your thumb at me? I think that the Montagues over reacted about this, by repeating themselves and getting louder. That was how the society was at the time that this film was made. I preferred the Baz Luhrman version of the film even though the Zeffirelli film was more conventional to Shakespeare, because it was a lot more modern. The pace of the film was also faster that the Zeffirelli version, which was a lot slower, paced this made it easier for me to understand.

The History of the Game of Bingo

The History of the Game of Bingo Bingo is a popular game that can be played for cash and prizes.  Bingo games are won when the player matches numbers on their card with ones randomly drawn by a caller. The first person to complete a pattern yells, Bingo. Their numbers are checked and a prize or cash awarded. The patterns can be varied throughout a gaming session, which keeps players interested and engaged. Bingos Ancestors The games history can be traced back to 1530, to an Italian lottery called Lo Giuoco del Lotto DItalia, which is still played every Saturday in Italy. From Italy, the game was introduced to France in the late 1770s, where it was called Le Lotto, a game played among wealthy Frenchmen. The Germans also played a version of the game in the 1800s, but they used it as a childs game to help students learn math, spelling, and history.​ In the U.S., bingo was originally called beano. It was a country fair game where a dealer would select numbered discs from a cigar box and players would mark their cards with beans. They yelled beano if they won. Edwin S. Lowe and the Bingo Card When the game reached North America in 1929, it became known as beano. It was first played at a carnival near Atlanta, Georgia. New York toy salesman Edwin S. Lowe renamed it bingo after he overheard someone accidentally yell bingo instead of beano. He hired a Columbia University math professor, Carl Leffler, to help him increase the number of combinations in bingo cards. By 1930, Leffler had invented 6,000 different bingo cards. They were developed so there would be fewer non-repeating number groups and conflicts when more than one person got Bingo at the same time. Lowe was a Jewish immigrant from Poland. Not only did his E.S. Lowe company produce bingo cards, but he also developed and marketed the game Yahtzee, for which he bought the rights from a couple who played it on their yacht. His company was sold to Milton Bradley in 1973 for $26 million. Lowe died in 1986. Church Bingo A Catholic priest from Pennsylvania approached Lowe about using bingo as a means of raising church funds. When bingo started being played in churches it became increasingly popular. By 1934, an estimated 10,000 bingo games were played weekly. While gambling is banned in many states, they may allow bingo games to be hosted by churches and non-profit groups to raise funds. Casino Bingo Bingo has been one of the games offered at many casinos, both in Nevada and those operated by Native American tribes. E.S. Lowe built a casino hotel on the Las Vegas Strip, the Tallyho Inn. Today, more than $90 million dollars are spent on bingo each week in North America alone. Bingo in Retirement and Nursing Homes Bingo is a popular game played for recreational therapy and socialization in skilled nursing facilities and retirement homes. It is easy to operate with just a couple of staff or volunteers, and residents can play along with their visitors. The opportunity to win a small prize is a lure. Its popularity may wane once the elderly population who enjoyed church bingo in their youth pass on to new generations raised on video games.

Website Usability of Coventry University Students Union Assignment

Website Usability of Coventry University Students Union - Assignment Example There are different ways usability can be determined for a given software product. These different ways are known as the usability evaluation methods. They include usability testing, usability inspection, and lastly, usability inquiry.In usability testing, we look at how users use the software product or website to accomplish various tasks. Then, as evaluators, we use the different results we receive from the whole process to determine whether the user interface is usable enough to support the demands of users as they go about accomplishing their different tasks. Under usability testing there are several other different sub-methods (Nielsen, 1994). The sub methods include co-discovery learning, coaching method, question-asking protocol, performance measurement, shadowing method, thinking aloud protocol, remote testing, and lastly, teaching method.The next testing method or evaluation method for the usability of a software product or a website is usability inspection. In this case, as the software developer, or as a user and or a professional in the usability field, we look at the various aspects of the user interface that are related to each other. There are different ways of doing this. We could decide to do this using pluralistic walk through, or using cognitive walkthroughs, or heuristic evaluation, or feature inspection, and lastly, through perspective based inspection. The last evaluation method is done through, usability inquiry. In this evaluation method, as professionals and evaluators, we talk to the users.... Under usability testing there are several other different sub-methods (Nielsen, 1994). The sub methods include co-discovery learning, coaching method, question-asking protocol, performance measurement, shadowing method, thinking aloud protocol, remote testing, and lastly, teaching method. The next testing method or evaluation method for the usability of a software product or a website is usability inspection. In this case, as the software developer, or as a user and or a professional in the usability field, we look at the various aspects of the user interface that are related to each other. There are different ways of doing this. We could decide to do this using pluralistic walk through, or using cognitive walkthroughs, or heuristic evaluation, or feature inspection, and lastly, through perspective based inspection. The last evaluation method is done through, usability inquiry. In this evaluation method, as professionals and evaluators, we talk to the users to find out information ab out what they like about the product we are giving them. In this process, the target or aim is to get to know the dislikes, the likes, the needs, as well as the understanding of the users. This can be done by watching them use the system to do real work, or through talking to them and asking them questions and noting down the answers. Additionally, the questions could be written or asked aurally. The different ways inquiry evaluation takes place is through, focus groups, field observation, interviews, questionnaires, proactive field study and so on and so forth. www.cusu.org is the website run by the Coventry University Students Union. The Coventry University Students’ Union, abbreviated CUSU, represents the voice of the students

Abortion Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Abortion - Research Paper Example Abortion is such an issue that carries two viewpoints encompassing choice and life. Life is present in the fetus right from the moment of conception, a fetus, or human embryo is considered to be a living individual. Due to the act of abortion, the individual is divested from the survival and hence abortion is considered to an act of murder. The view is supported by the Catholic Church, considering the responsibility to prevent every individual (Web. "Ethics of Abortion: Is it Moral or Immoral to Have an Abortion"). On the contrary, decision to give birth to the young one is the right of mother and there should not be any interventions, she has the responsibility of upbringing of the child. History reveals that abortion has always been a contemporary issue; the issue was prevalent even before the birth of Christ. Some traditional methods were prevalent to kill the unwanted fetus; it was a legal as well as political concern. Plato (428- 347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) maintained the outlook of abortion (Roos). Abortion has been debated over the years on the political grounds to make a law in order to regard it as a murder or it should be left as a permissible issue leaving on the choice of the women. However, it cannot be denied that law must not legislate transience, the laws must be made for good and should be in the favor of women (Web. "Fetus, Humanity, Personhood: When Does a Fetus Become a Human Person with Rights"). Debates related to abortion encompass the lawful eminence related to the fetus. Considering fetus as an individual, abortion is equivalent to the murder and therefore abortion is an illegitimate act. On the other hand, needful to understand that fetus is the part of womens body and any state cannot compel a woman to continue with the pregnancy if the woman is not willing to maintain it to the complete term. Thus, it should be an ethical choice and